LPIC-1 Linux Institute Professional

Zacząłem już jakiś czas temu przygotowania do tegoż certyfikatu, więc w ramach przypomnień i zrobienia krótkich notatek zamierzam zamieszczać tutaj swoje przemyślenia i informacje.

System Architecture

Detectable Hardware

Linux bazuje na Hardware Abstraction Layer która to zawiera cztery podstawowe komponenty:

sysfs - virtual filesystem - tworzy go katalog /sys/ w raz z podkatalogami:
- block/ - sterownik dla urządzeń blokowych
- class/ - dla klas urządzeń
- devices/ - dla hierarchii wykrytych urządzeń
- firmware/ - dla sterowników
- modules/ - dla załadowanych modułów w Kernel
udev - Kernel devices manager, sprawdza połączenia pomiędzy "zdarzeniami" a urządzeniami czyli np. jeśli mamy zamontowany pendrive i chcemy go od montować udev usuwa pliki, które powstały na skutek montowania tego urządzenia lub też tworzy takie pliki kiedy montujemy.
hald - utrzymuje bazę danych z aktualnym sprzętem (działa jako deamon)
dbus - jest to proces który jest użyteczny w wykrywaniu urządzeń używających IPC (Interprocess Comunication), umożliwia np. automatyczne zamontowanie pendriva lub innego urządzenia

Dla Ubuntu (debain)

nonus25@localhost:~$ ls -lo /sys/
total 0
drwxr-xr-x   2 root 0 2012-02-01 20:14 block
drwxr-xr-x  20 root 0 2012-02-01 20:14 bus
drwxr-xr-x  41 root 0 2012-02-01 20:14 class
drwxr-xr-x   4 root 0 2012-02-01 20:14 dev
drwxr-xr-x  10 root 0 2012-02-01 20:02 devices
drwxr-xr-x   4 root 0 2012-02-01 20:14 firmware
drwxr-xr-x   6 root 0 2012-02-01 20:10 fs
drwxr-xr-x   6 root 0 2012-02-01 20:02 kernel
drwxr-xr-x 105 root 0 2012-02-01 20:14 module
drwxr-xr-x   2 root 0 2012-02-01 20:14 power

Dla CentOS (wersja RedHat'a dla ubogich)

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ ls -lo /sys/
total 0
drwxr-xr-x  31 root 0 Jan 29 21:07 block
drwxr-xr-x  15 root 0 Jan 29 21:08 bus
drwxr-xr-x  36 root 0 Jan 29 21:08 class
drwxr-xr-x  15 root 0 Jan 29 21:07 devices
drwxr-xr-x   3 root 0 Jan 29 21:07 firmware
drwxr-xr-x   2 root 0 Jan 29 21:07 fs
drwxr-xr-x   4 root 0 Jan 29 21:08 kernel
drwxr-xr-x 138 root 0 Jan 29 21:09 module
drwxr-xr-x   2 root 0 Jan 29 21:08 power

Pokrewnym katalogowi sys/ jest katalog proc/ dla dynamicznych ustawień. Zapewnia on dynamiczny dostęp do informacji na twardym dysku i do kernel, poniżej wynik polecenia /proc/cpuinfo dla obu dystrybucji zainstalowanych na VirtualBox'ie

Dla Ubuntu (debain)

nonus25@localhost:~$ cat /proc/cpuinfo 
processor : 0
vendor_id : GenuineIntel
cpu family : 6
model  : 23
model name : Intel(R) Core(TM)2 Duo CPU     P8600  @ 2.40GHz
stepping : 6
cpu MHz  : 2395.160
cache size : 6144 KB
fdiv_bug : no
hlt_bug  : no
f00f_bug : no
coma_bug : no
fpu  : yes
fpu_exception : yes
cpuid level : 5
wp  : yes
flags  : fpu vme de pse tsc msr mce cx8 apic mtrr pge mca cmov pat pse36 clflush mmx fxsr sse sse2 constant_tsc up pni monitor ssse3
bogomips : 4790.32
clflush size : 64
cache_alignment : 64
address sizes : 36 bits physical, 48 bits virtual
power management:

Dla CentOS (wersja RedHat'a dla ubogich)

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ cat /proc/cpuinfo 
processor       : 0
vendor_id       : GenuineIntel
cpu family      : 6
model           : 23
model name      : Intel(R) Core(TM)2 Duo CPU     P8600  @ 2.40GHz
stepping        : 6
cpu MHz         : 2395.466
cache size      : 3072 KB
physical id     : 0
siblings        : 1
core id         : 0
cpu cores       : 1
apicid          : 0
fdiv_bug        : no
hlt_bug         : no
f00f_bug        : no
coma_bug        : no
fpu             : yes
fpu_exception   : yes
cpuid level     : 5
wp              : yes
flags           : fpu vme de pse tsc msr mce cx8 apic mtrr pge mca cmov pat pse36 clflush mmx fxsr sse sse2 constant_tsc up pni monitor ssse3
bogomips        : 4790.93

Przeglądając katalog proc/ możemy znaleźć wiele przydatnych informacji o stanie naszego systemu, przede wszystkim polecenia które należy przejrzeć i się z nimi zapoznać to: /proc/modules, /proc/mounts, /proc/meminfo

/proc/modules

Ubuntu:

nonus25@localhost:~$ cat /proc/modules 
btrfs 459002 0 - Live 0xe24b1000
zlib_deflate 19568 1 btrfs, Live 0xe2415000
crc32c 2519 1 - Live 0xe2408000
libcrc32c 875 1 btrfs, Live 0xe23fe000
ufs 72774 0 - Live 0xe23e3000
qnx4 6484 0 - Live 0xe23c3000
hfsplus 70800 0 - Live 0xe23a4000
hfs 40754 0 - Live 0xe237a000
minix 25197 0 - Live 0xe235b000
ntfs 94791 0 - Live 0xe232f000
vfat 8933 0 - Live 0xe2305000
msdos 6392 0 - Live 0xe22fa000
fat 47767 2 vfat,msdos, Live 0xe22ec000
jfs 172682 0 - Live 0xe205b000
xfs 515548 0 - Live 0xe1fa1000
exportfs 3437 1 xfs, Live 0xe08ed000
reiserfs 225539 0 - Live 0xe1ec9000
nls_utf8 1069 1 - Live 0xe0977000
isofs 29250 1 - Live 0xe1a6d000
vboxvideo 1228 2 - Live 0xe0888000
drm 162377 3 vboxvideo, Live 0xe1a25000
agpgart 31724 1 drm, Live 0xe1a04000
binfmt_misc 6587 1 - Live 0xe0884000
vboxsf 33688 0 - Live 0xe08e2000
snd_intel8x0 25588 2 - Live 0xe1ac6000
snd_ac97_codec 100646 1 snd_intel8x0, Live 0xe1a95000
ac97_bus 1002 1 snd_ac97_codec, Live 0xe1a6a000
snd_pcm_oss 35308 0 - Live 0xe1a58000
snd_mixer_oss 13746 1 snd_pcm_oss, Live 0xe098e000
snd_pcm 70662 3 snd_intel8x0,snd_ac97_codec,snd_pcm_oss, Live 0xe09e8000
snd_seq_dummy 1338 0 - Live 0xe08fa000
snd_seq_oss 26726 0 - Live 0xe08b8000
snd_seq_midi 4557 0 - Live 0xe0880000
snd_rawmidi 19056 1 snd_seq_midi, Live 0xe1a0f000
snd_seq_midi_event 6003 2 snd_seq_oss,snd_seq_midi, Live 0xe09fc000
snd_seq 47263 6 snd_seq_dummy,snd_seq_oss,snd_seq_midi,snd_seq_midi_event, Live 0xe0969000
snd_timer 19098 2 snd_pcm,snd_seq, Live 0xe0962000
snd_seq_device 5700 5 snd_seq_dummy,snd_seq_oss,snd_seq_midi,snd_rawmidi,snd_seq, Live 0xe0821000
ppdev 5259 0 - Live 0xe088e000
snd 54148 14 snd_intel8x0,snd_ac97_codec,snd_pcm_oss,snd_mixer_oss,snd_pcm,snd_seq_oss,snd_rawmidi,snd_seq,snd_timer,snd_seq_device, Live 0xe0979000
fbcon 35102 71 - Live 0xe08ef000
tileblit 2031 1 fbcon, Live 0xe081b000
font 7557 1 fbcon, Live 0xe08a8000
bitblit 4707 1 fbcon, Live 0xe0853000
softcursor 1189 1 bitblit, Live 0xe081e000
soundcore 6620 1 snd, Live 0xe088a000
joydev 8708 0 - Live 0xe0812000
psmouse 63245 0 - Live 0xe09ba000
serio_raw 3978 0 - Live 0xe085e000
parport_pc 25962 0 - Live 0xe0841000
snd_page_alloc 7076 2 snd_intel8x0,snd_pcm, Live 0xe0824000
i2c_piix4 8335 0 - Live 0xe0816000
vboxguest 150464 8 vboxsf, Live 0xe0993000
vga16fb 11385 1 - Live 0xe0859000
vgastate 8961 1 vga16fb, Live 0xe084a000
lp 7028 0 - Live 0xe083d000
parport 32635 3 ppdev,parport_pc,lp, Live 0xe07ff000
usbhid 36110 0 - Live 0xe08ad000
ahci 32200 2 - Live 0xe0892000
e1000 97396 0 - Live 0xe0860000
hid 67032 1 usbhid, Live 0xe082a000

CentOS:

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ cat /proc/mo
modules  mounts   
[nonus25@localhost ~]$ cat /proc/modules 
nls_utf8 6209 1 - Live 0xe1db7000
ipt_MASQUERADE 7617 3 - Live 0xe1d24000
iptable_nat 10949 1 - Live 0xe1d5b000
ip_nat 20973 2 ipt_MASQUERADE,iptable_nat, Live 0xe1d9b000
bridge 68701 0 - Live 0xe1dcd000
vboxsf 38088 0 - Live 0xe1e36000 (U)
autofs4 29253 3 - Live 0xe1dae000
hidp 22977 2 - Live 0xe1d94000
rfcomm 42457 0 - Live 0xe1da2000
l2cap 29761 10 hidp,rfcomm, Live 0xe1d40000
bluetooth 53797 5 hidp,rfcomm,l2cap, Live 0xe1d85000
lockd 63209 0 - Live 0xe1d4a000
sunrpc 149373 2 lockd, Live 0xe1d5f000
ip_conntrack_ftp 11569 0 - Live 0xe1d1a000
ip_conntrack_netbios_ns 6977 0 - Live 0xe1cf1000
ipt_REJECT 9537 3 - Live 0xe1d16000
xt_state 6209 13 - Live 0xe1cfa000
ip_conntrack 53281 6 ipt_MASQUERADE,iptable_nat,ip_nat,ip_conntrack_ftp,ip_conntrack_netbios_ns,xt_state, Live 0xe1d27000
nfnetlink 10713 2 ip_nat,ip_conntrack, Live 0xe1d12000
iptable_filter 7105 1 - Live 0xe1cee000
ip_tables 17029 2 iptable_nat,iptable_filter, Live 0xe1cf4000
ip6t_REJECT 9281 1 - Live 0xe1cea000
xt_tcpudp 7105 34 - Live 0xe1c67000
ip6table_filter 6849 1 - Live 0xe0ad3000
ip6_tables 18181 1 ip6table_filter, Live 0xe1c61000
x_tables 17349 8 ipt_MASQUERADE,iptable_nat,ipt_REJECT,xt_state,ip_tables,ip6t_REJECT,xt_tcpudp,ip6_tables, Live 0xe1c5b000
be2iscsi 59093 0 - Live 0xe1cfd000
ib_iser 35609 0 - Live 0xe1ce0000
rdma_cm 35705 1 ib_iser, Live 0xe1cd6000
ib_cm 39213 1 rdma_cm, Live 0xe1ccb000
iw_cm 13125 1 rdma_cm, Live 0xe1c56000
ib_sa 39093 2 rdma_cm,ib_cm, Live 0xe1cc0000
ib_mad 37717 2 ib_cm,ib_sa, Live 0xe1c31000
ib_core 63557 6 ib_iser,rdma_cm,ib_cm,iw_cm,ib_sa,ib_mad, Live 0xe1c6a000
ib_addr 11717 1 rdma_cm, Live 0xe1c2d000
iscsi_tcp 20041 0 - Live 0xe0b49000
bnx2i 43229 0 - Live 0xe1c4a000
cnic 50261 1 bnx2i, Live 0xe1c3c000
ipv6 271393 18 ip6t_REJECT,cnic, Live 0xe1c7c000
xfrm_nalgo 13381 1 ipv6, Live 0xe0b73000
crypto_api 12609 1 xfrm_nalgo, Live 0xe0b54000
uio 14793 1 cnic, Live 0xe0b4f000
cxgb3i 31177 0 - Live 0xe0b6a000
libcxgbi 54477 1 cxgb3i, Live 0xe0b5b000
cxgb3 167193 1 cxgb3i, Live 0xe1c03000
8021q 25929 1 cxgb3, Live 0xe0af8000
libiscsi_tcp 22213 3 iscsi_tcp,cxgb3i,libcxgbi, Live 0xe0b00000
libiscsi2 42693 7 be2iscsi,ib_iser,iscsi_tcp,bnx2i,cxgb3i,libcxgbi,libiscsi_tcp, Live 0xe0ae0000
scsi_transport_iscsi2 37709 8 be2iscsi,ib_iser,iscsi_tcp,bnx2i,libcxgbi,libiscsi2, Live 0xe0aed000
scsi_transport_iscsi 6085 1 scsi_transport_iscsi2, Live 0xe0ad6000
loop 18633 0 - Live 0xe0ada000
dm_multipath 26957 0 - Live 0xe0abf000
scsi_dh 12481 1 dm_multipath, Live 0xe0ace000
video 21193 0 - Live 0xe0ac7000
backlight 10049 1 video, Live 0xe0a80000
sbs 18533 0 - Live 0xe0ab3000
power_meter 16461 0 - Live 0xe0ab9000
hwmon 7365 1 power_meter, Live 0xe0a73000
i2c_ec 9025 1 sbs, Live 0xe0aaf000
dell_wmi 8401 0 - Live 0xe0a84000
wmi 12137 1 dell_wmi, Live 0xe0aab000
button 10705 0 - Live 0xe0a3c000
battery 13637 0 - Live 0xe0aa6000
asus_acpi 19289 0 - Live 0xe0aa0000
ac 9157 0 - Live 0xe0a6f000
lp 15849 0 - Live 0xe0993000
joydev 13185 0 - Live 0xe0a6a000
sg 36717 0 - Live 0xe0a76000
pata_acpi 9665 0 - Live 0xe0a38000
ata_generic 10565 0 - Live 0xe0a13000
snd_intel8x0 35421 1 - Live 0xe09fb000
snd_ac97_codec 93025 1 snd_intel8x0, Live 0xe0a88000
ac97_bus 6337 1 snd_ac97_codec, Live 0xe09f8000
snd_seq_dummy 7877 0 - Live 0xe09f5000
snd_seq_oss 32577 0 - Live 0xe0a61000
snd_seq_midi_event 11073 1 snd_seq_oss, Live 0xe099f000
snd_seq 49585 5 snd_seq_dummy,snd_seq_oss,snd_seq_midi_event, Live 0xe0a05000
e1000 120285 0 - Live 0xe0a19000
pcspkr 7105 0 - Live 0xe099c000
vboxguest 151976 6 vboxsf, Live 0xe09ce000 (U)
ide_cd 40161 1 - Live 0xe09c3000
snd_seq_device 11725 3 snd_seq_dummy,snd_seq_oss,snd_seq, Live 0xe0998000
snd_pcm_oss 42817 0 - Live 0xe094d000
snd_mixer_oss 19009 1 snd_pcm_oss, Live 0xe098d000
snd_pcm 72133 3 snd_intel8x0,snd_ac97_codec,snd_pcm_oss, Live 0xe09a3000
i2c_piix4 13133 0 - Live 0xe0917000
snd_timer 24517 2 snd_seq,snd_pcm, Live 0xe0975000
parport_pc 29157 0 - Live 0xe096c000
snd 55877 11 snd_intel8x0,snd_ac97_codec,snd_seq_oss,snd_seq,snd_seq_device,snd_pcm_oss,snd_mixer_oss,snd_pcm,snd_timer, Live 0xe097e000
i2c_core 24897 2 i2c_ec,i2c_piix4, Live 0xe0964000
parport 37513 2 lp,parport_pc, Live 0xe0959000
soundcore 11553 1 snd, Live 0xe0949000
serio_raw 10693 0 - Live 0xe091c000
snd_page_alloc 14281 2 snd_intel8x0,snd_pcm, Live 0xe08c3000
tpm_tis 16713 0 - Live 0xe0943000
tpm 19041 1 tpm_tis, Live 0xe093d000
tpm_bios 11073 1 tpm, Live 0xe0913000
cdrom 36577 1 ide_cd, Live 0xe0933000
dm_raid45 67273 0 - Live 0xe0921000
dm_message 6977 1 dm_raid45, Live 0xe08c0000
dm_region_hash 15681 1 dm_raid45, Live 0xe08cf000
dm_mem_cache 9537 1 dm_raid45, Live 0xe08a7000
dm_snapshot 23653 0 - Live 0xe08c8000
dm_zero 6209 0 - Live 0xe08a4000
dm_mirror 24393 0 - Live 0xe08b9000
dm_log 14785 3 dm_raid45,dm_region_hash,dm_mirror, Live 0xe08b4000
dm_mod 63737 11 dm_multipath,dm_raid45,dm_snapshot,dm_zero,dm_mirror,dm_log, Live 0xe08fc000
ata_piix 24005 0 - Live 0xe08ad000
ahci 38477 2 - Live 0xe0843000
libata 156805 4 pata_acpi,ata_generic,ata_piix,ahci, Live 0xe08d4000
sd_mod 25281 3 - Live 0xe083b000
scsi_mod 144021 11 be2iscsi,ib_iser,iscsi_tcp,bnx2i,libcxgbi,libiscsi2,scsi_transport_iscsi2,scsi_dh,sg,libata,sd_mod, Live 0xe085e000
ext3 125769 2 - Live 0xe0884000
jbd 57705 1 ext3, Live 0xe084e000
uhci_hcd 25421 0 - Live 0xe0833000
ohci_hcd 24937 0 - Live 0xe0816000
ehci_hcd 34125 0 - Live 0xe081e000

/proc/mounts

Ubuntu:

nonus25@localhost:~$ cat /proc/mounts 
rootfs / rootfs rw 0 0
none /sys sysfs rw,nosuid,nodev,noexec,relatime 0 0
none /proc proc rw,nosuid,nodev,noexec,relatime 0 0
none /dev devtmpfs rw,relatime,size=250416k,nr_inodes=62604,mode=755 0 0
none /dev/pts devpts rw,nosuid,noexec,relatime,gid=5,mode=620,ptmxmode=000 0 0
/dev/disk/by-uuid/778034df-2dc9-42b5-8a74-fc50236809e7 / ext4 rw,relatime,errors=remount-ro,barrier=1,data=ordered 0 0
none /sys/fs/fuse/connections fusectl rw,relatime 0 0
none /sys/kernel/debug debugfs rw,relatime 0 0
none /sys/kernel/security securityfs rw,relatime 0 0
none /dev/shm tmpfs rw,nosuid,nodev,relatime 0 0
none /var/run tmpfs rw,nosuid,relatime,mode=755 0 0
none /var/lock tmpfs rw,nosuid,nodev,noexec,relatime 0 0
none /lib/init/rw tmpfs rw,nosuid,relatime,mode=755 0 0
binfmt_misc /proc/sys/fs/binfmt_misc binfmt_misc rw,nosuid,nodev,noexec,relatime 0 0
gvfs-fuse-daemon /home/nonus25/.gvfs fuse.gvfs-fuse-daemon rw,nosuid,nodev,relatime,user_id=1000,group_id=1000 0 0
/dev/sr0 /media/VBOXADDITIONS_3.2.12_68302 iso9660 ro,nosuid,nodev,relatime,uid=1000,gid=1000,iocharset=utf8,mode=0400,dmode=0500 0 0

CentOS:

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ cat /proc/mounts 
rootfs / rootfs rw 0 0
/dev/root / ext3 rw,data=ordered 0 0
/dev /dev tmpfs rw 0 0
/proc /proc proc rw 0 0
/sys /sys sysfs rw 0 0
none /selinux selinuxfs rw 0 0
/proc/bus/usb /proc/bus/usb usbfs rw 0 0
devpts /dev/pts devpts rw 0 0
/dev/sda1 /boot ext3 rw,data=ordered 0 0
tmpfs /dev/shm tmpfs rw 0 0
none /proc/sys/fs/binfmt_misc binfmt_misc rw 0 0
sunrpc /var/lib/nfs/rpc_pipefs rpc_pipefs rw 0 0
/etc/auto.misc /misc autofs rw,fd=7,pgrp=2581,timeout=300,minproto=5,maxproto=5,indirect 0 0
-hosts /net autofs rw,fd=13,pgrp=2581,timeout=300,minproto=5,maxproto=5,indirect 0 0
/dev/hdc /media/VBOXADDITIONS_3.2.12_68302 iso9660 ro,nosuid,nodev 0 0

/proc/meminfo

Ubuntu:

nonus25@localhost:~$ cat /proc/meminfo 
MemTotal:         509276 kB
MemFree:           11880 kB
Buffers:           36464 kB
Cached:           254984 kB
SwapCached:         2696 kB
Active:           212760 kB
Inactive:         243048 kB
Active(anon):      58592 kB
Inactive(anon):   115004 kB
Active(file):     154168 kB
Inactive(file):   128044 kB
Unevictable:          16 kB
Mlocked:              16 kB
HighTotal:             0 kB
HighFree:              0 kB
LowTotal:         509276 kB
LowFree:           11880 kB
SwapTotal:        704504 kB
SwapFree:         686700 kB
Dirty:                 0 kB
Writeback:             0 kB
AnonPages:        162364 kB
Mapped:            37568 kB
Shmem:              9264 kB
Slab:              25264 kB
SReclaimable:      17328 kB
SUnreclaim:         7936 kB
KernelStack:        1848 kB
PageTables:         4568 kB
NFS_Unstable:          0 kB
Bounce:                0 kB
WritebackTmp:          0 kB
CommitLimit:      959140 kB
Committed_AS:     573500 kB
VmallocTotal:     507960 kB
VmallocUsed:       27088 kB
VmallocChunk:     469876 kB
HardwareCorrupted:     0 kB
HugePages_Total:       0
HugePages_Free:        0
HugePages_Rsvd:        0
HugePages_Surp:        0
Hugepagesize:       4096 kB
DirectMap4k:       12224 kB
DirectMap4M:      512000 kB

CentOS:

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ cat /proc/meminfo 
MemTotal:       514900 kB
MemFree:         18484 kB
Buffers:         29392 kB
Cached:         314436 kB
SwapCached:          0 kB
Active:         195716 kB
Inactive:       264712 kB
HighTotal:           0 kB
HighFree:            0 kB
LowTotal:       514900 kB
LowFree:         18484 kB
SwapTotal:     1048568 kB
SwapFree:      1048568 kB
Dirty:              16 kB
Writeback:           0 kB
AnonPages:      116600 kB
Mapped:          43372 kB
Slab:            24884 kB
PageTables:       4300 kB
NFS_Unstable:        0 kB
Bounce:              0 kB
CommitLimit:   1306016 kB
Committed_AS:   573672 kB
VmallocTotal:   507896 kB
VmallocUsed:     22264 kB
VmallocChunk:   485108 kB
HugePages_Total:     0
HugePages_Free:      0
HugePages_Rsvd:      0
Hugepagesize:     4096 kB

Po wy listowaniu katalogu /proc/ można zauważyć podkatalogi których nazwę tworzą numery, są to nic innego jak procesy naszego systemu, przykład:

Ubuntu:

nonus25@localhost:~$ ls /proc/
1      1088  12846  2     45    833        driver         pagetypeinfo
10     1094  12847  20    4970  9          execdomains    partitions
10057  11    1285   21    5     9535       fb             sched_debug
10059  1123  1293   22    5023  9536       filesystems    schedstat
10123  1137  1294   23    5025  9537       fs             scsi
10124  1168  1299   237   519   9538       interrupts     self
10168  1178  13     24    536   9541       iomem          slabinfo
1026   1184  1302   2417  542   9542       ioports        softirqs
1037   1188  1304   2554  547   9543       irq            stat
1043   12    1305   27    564   956        kallsyms       swaps
1045   1201  13097  28    568   960        kcore          sys
1048   1207  1310   29    569   972        key-users      sysrq-trigger
1049   1210  13110  3     6     981        kmsg           sysvipc
1052   1219  1314   30    6176  acpi       kpagecount     timer_list
1058   1228  1318   31    6180  asound     kpageflags     timer_stats
1061   1231  14     32    650   buddyinfo  latency_stats  tty
1063   1240  15     36    695   bus        loadavg        uptime
1068   1241  154    37    699   cgroups    locks          version
1073   1242  158    379   7     cmdline    mdstat         version_signature
1075   1243  16     4     706   cpuinfo    meminfo        vmallocinfo
1077   1262  17     40    707   crypto     misc           vmstat
1080   1263  176    41    710   devices    modules        zoneinfo
1081   1275  177    42    716   diskstats  mounts
1085   1279  18     43    7827  dma        mtrr
1086   1282  19     44    8     dri        net

CentOS:

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ ls /proc/
1     1594  2500  2916  3218  3411  3568       dma          mounts
10    1684  2510  2917  3223  3413  3599       driver       mtrr
11    1962  2520  294   3224  3416  3601       execdomains  net
117   2     2541  2980  3255  3429  3602       fb           partitions
118   2076  2581  2985  3257  3444  3651       filesystems  schedstat
119   2078  2665  299   3260  3470  382        fs           scsi
120   2099  2684  3     3264  3474  4          ide          self
121   2112  2689  3044  3266  3477  48         interrupts   slabinfo
1291  2115  270   308   3278  3479  5          iomem        stat
1292  2200  2706  3120  3308  3480  51         ioports      swaps
1349  2234  2719  3161  3316  3487  53         irq          sys
1504  2240  2735  3162  3322  3489  6          kallsyms     sysrq-trigger
1536  2276  2757  3163  3342  349   7          kcore        sysvipc
1553  2360  2766  3164  3365  3499  acpi       keys         tty
1559  2376  2780  3165  3366  3501  asound     key-users    uptime
1560  2389  2793  3175  3373  3503  buddyinfo  kmsg         version
1561  2395  2824  319   3376  3526  bus        loadavg      vmcore
1565  2416  2837  3190  3378  3528  cmdline    locks        vmstat
1567  2461  2849  3214  3399  3537  cpuinfo    mdstat       zoneinfo
1569  2475  2878  3215  3403  3539  crypto     meminfo
1587  2492  290   3216  3405  3541  devices    misc
1593  2493  291   3217  3409  3566  diskstats  modules

Some Hardware Information

Komendy odpowiadające za wy listowanie informacji na temat lokalnego sprzętu

lsusb podaje podłączone urządzenia usb

Ubuntu:

nonus25@localhost:~$ lsusb 
Bus 002 Device 002: ID 80ee:0021  
Bus 002 Device 001: ID 1d6b:0001 Linux Foundation 1.1 root hub
Bus 001 Device 001: ID 1d6b:0002 Linux Foundation 2.0 root hub

CentOS:

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ /sbin/lsusb 
Bus 001 Device 001: ID 0000:0000  
Bus 002 Device 001: ID 0000:0000  
Bus 002 Device 002: ID 80ee:0021 VirtualBox USB Tablet

lspci podaje wewnętrzne urządzenia

Ubuntu:

nonus25@localhost:~$ lspci
00:00.0 Host bridge: Intel Corporation 440FX - 82441FX PMC [Natoma] (rev 02)
00:01.0 ISA bridge: Intel Corporation 82371SB PIIX3 ISA [Natoma/Triton II]
00:01.1 IDE interface: Intel Corporation 82371AB/EB/MB PIIX4 IDE (rev 01)
00:02.0 VGA compatible controller: InnoTek Systemberatung GmbH VirtualBox Graphics Adapter
00:03.0 Ethernet controller: Intel Corporation 82540EM Gigabit Ethernet Controller (rev 02)
00:04.0 System peripheral: InnoTek Systemberatung GmbH VirtualBox Guest Service
00:05.0 Multimedia audio controller: Intel Corporation 82801AA AC'97 Audio Controller (rev 01)
00:06.0 USB Controller: Apple Computer Inc. KeyLargo/Intrepid USB
00:07.0 Bridge: Intel Corporation 82371AB/EB/MB PIIX4 ACPI (rev 08)
00:0b.0 USB Controller: Intel Corporation 82801FB/FBM/FR/FW/FRW (ICH6 Family) USB2 EHCI Controller
00:0d.0 SATA controller: Intel Corporation 82801HBM/HEM (ICH8M/ICH8M-E) SATA AHCI Controller (rev 02)

CentOS:

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ /sbin/lspci
00:00.0 Host bridge: Intel Corporation 440FX - 82441FX PMC [Natoma] (rev 02)
00:01.0 ISA bridge: Intel Corporation 82371SB PIIX3 ISA [Natoma/Triton II]
00:01.1 IDE interface: Intel Corporation 82371AB/EB/MB PIIX4 IDE (rev 01)
00:02.0 VGA compatible controller: InnoTek Systemberatung GmbH VirtualBox Graphics Adapter
00:03.0 Ethernet controller: Intel Corporation 82540EM Gigabit Ethernet Controller (rev 02)
00:04.0 System peripheral: InnoTek Systemberatung GmbH VirtualBox Guest Service
00:05.0 Multimedia audio controller: Intel Corporation 82801AA AC'97 Audio Controller (rev 01)
00:06.0 USB Controller: Apple Computer Inc. KeyLargo/Intrepid USB
00:07.0 Bridge: Intel Corporation 82371AB/EB/MB PIIX4 ACPI (rev 08)
00:0b.0 USB Controller: Intel Corporation 82801FB/FBM/FR/FW/FRW (ICH6 Family) USB2 EHCI Controller
00:0d.0 SATA controller: Intel Corporation 82801HBM/HEM (ICH8M/ICH8M-E) SATA AHCI Controller (rev 02)

lsmod daje listę załadowanych sterowników

Ubuntu:

nonus25@localhost:~$ lsmod
Module                  Size  Used by
btrfs                 459002  0 
zlib_deflate           19568  1 btrfs
crc32c                  2519  1 
libcrc32c                875  1 btrfs
ufs                    72774  0 
qnx4                    6484  0 
hfsplus                70800  0 
hfs                    40754  0 
minix                  25197  0 
ntfs                   94791  0 
vfat                    8933  0 
msdos                   6392  0 
fat                    47767  2 vfat,msdos
jfs                   172682  0 
xfs                   515548  0 
exportfs                3437  1 xfs
reiserfs              225539  0 
nls_utf8                1069  1 
isofs                  29250  1 
vboxvideo               1228  2 
drm                   162377  3 vboxvideo
agpgart                31724  1 drm
binfmt_misc             6587  1 
vboxsf                 33688  0 
snd_intel8x0           25588  2 
snd_ac97_codec        100646  1 snd_intel8x0
ac97_bus                1002  1 snd_ac97_codec
snd_pcm_oss            35308  0 
snd_mixer_oss          13746  1 snd_pcm_oss
snd_pcm                70662  3 snd_intel8x0,snd_ac97_codec,snd_pcm_oss
snd_seq_dummy           1338  0 
snd_seq_oss            26726  0 
snd_seq_midi            4557  0 
snd_rawmidi            19056  1 snd_seq_midi
snd_seq_midi_event      6003  2 snd_seq_oss,snd_seq_midi
snd_seq                47263  6 snd_seq_dummy,snd_seq_oss,snd_seq_midi,snd_seq_midi_event
snd_timer              19098  2 snd_pcm,snd_seq
snd_seq_device          5700  5 snd_seq_dummy,snd_seq_oss,snd_seq_midi,snd_rawmidi,snd_seq
ppdev                   5259  0 
snd                    54148  14 snd_intel8x0,snd_ac97_codec,snd_pcm_oss,snd_mixer_oss,snd_pcm,snd_seq_oss,snd_rawmidi,snd_seq,snd_timer,snd_seq_device
fbcon                  35102  71 
tileblit                2031  1 fbcon
font                    7557  1 fbcon
bitblit                 4707  1 fbcon
softcursor              1189  1 bitblit
soundcore               6620  1 snd
joydev                  8708  0 
psmouse                63245  0 
serio_raw               3978  0 
parport_pc             25962  0 
snd_page_alloc          7076  2 snd_intel8x0,snd_pcm
i2c_piix4               8335  0 
vboxguest             150464  8 vboxsf
vga16fb                11385  1 
vgastate                8961  1 vga16fb
lp                      7028  0 
parport                32635  3 ppdev,parport_pc,lp
usbhid                 36110  0 
ahci                   32200  2 
e1000                  97396  0 
hid                    67032  1 usbhid

CentOS:

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ /sbin/lsmod 
Module                  Size  Used by
nls_utf8                6209  1 
ipt_MASQUERADE          7617  3 
iptable_nat            10949  1 
ip_nat                 20973  2 ipt_MASQUERADE,iptable_nat
bridge                 68701  0 
vboxsf                 38088  0 
autofs4                29253  3 
hidp                   22977  2 
rfcomm                 42457  0 
l2cap                  29761  10 hidp,rfcomm
bluetooth              53797  5 hidp,rfcomm,l2cap
lockd                  63209  0 
sunrpc                149373  2 lockd
ip_conntrack_ftp       11569  0 
ip_conntrack_netbios_ns     6977  0 
ipt_REJECT              9537  3 
xt_state                6209  13 
ip_conntrack           53281  6 ipt_MASQUERADE,iptable_nat,ip_nat,ip_conntrack_ftp,ip_conntrack_netbios_ns,xt_state
nfnetlink              10713  2 ip_nat,ip_conntrack
iptable_filter          7105  1 
ip_tables              17029  2 iptable_nat,iptable_filter
ip6t_REJECT             9281  1 
xt_tcpudp               7105  34 
ip6table_filter         6849  1 
ip6_tables             18181  1 ip6table_filter
x_tables               17349  8 ipt_MASQUERADE,iptable_nat,ipt_REJECT,xt_state,ip_tables,ip6t_REJECT,xt_tcpudp,ip6_tables
be2iscsi               59093  0 
ib_iser                35609  0 
rdma_cm                35705  1 ib_iser
ib_cm                  39213  1 rdma_cm
iw_cm                  13125  1 rdma_cm
ib_sa                  39093  2 rdma_cm,ib_cm
ib_mad                 37717  2 ib_cm,ib_sa
ib_core                63557  6 ib_iser,rdma_cm,ib_cm,iw_cm,ib_sa,ib_mad
ib_addr                11717  1 rdma_cm
iscsi_tcp              20041  0 
bnx2i                  43229  0 
cnic                   50261  1 bnx2i
ipv6                  271393  18 ip6t_REJECT,cnic
xfrm_nalgo             13381  1 ipv6
crypto_api             12609  1 xfrm_nalgo
uio                    14793  1 cnic
cxgb3i                 31177  0 
libcxgbi               54477  1 cxgb3i
cxgb3                 167193  1 cxgb3i
8021q                  25929  1 cxgb3
libiscsi_tcp           22213  3 iscsi_tcp,cxgb3i,libcxgbi
libiscsi2              42693  7 be2iscsi,ib_iser,iscsi_tcp,bnx2i,cxgb3i,libcxgbi,libiscsi_tcp
scsi_transport_iscsi2    37709  8 be2iscsi,ib_iser,iscsi_tcp,bnx2i,libcxgbi,libiscsi2
scsi_transport_iscsi     6085  1 scsi_transport_iscsi2
loop                   18633  0 
dm_multipath           26957  0 
scsi_dh                12481  1 dm_multipath
video                  21193  0 
backlight              10049  1 video
sbs                    18533  0 
power_meter            16461  0 
hwmon                   7365  1 power_meter
i2c_ec                  9025  1 sbs
dell_wmi                8401  0 
wmi                    12137  1 dell_wmi
button                 10705  0 
battery                13637  0 
asus_acpi              19289  0 
ac                      9157  0 
lp                     15849  0 
joydev                 13185  0 
sg                     36717  0 
pata_acpi               9665  0 
ata_generic            10565  0 
snd_intel8x0           35421  1 
snd_ac97_codec         93025  1 snd_intel8x0
ac97_bus                6337  1 snd_ac97_codec
snd_seq_dummy           7877  0 
snd_seq_oss            32577  0 
snd_seq_midi_event     11073  1 snd_seq_oss
snd_seq                49585  5 snd_seq_dummy,snd_seq_oss,snd_seq_midi_event
e1000                 120285  0 
pcspkr                  7105  0 
vboxguest             151976  6 vboxsf
ide_cd                 40161  1 
snd_seq_device         11725  3 snd_seq_dummy,snd_seq_oss,snd_seq
snd_pcm_oss            42817  0 
snd_mixer_oss          19009  1 snd_pcm_oss
snd_pcm                72133  3 snd_intel8x0,snd_ac97_codec,snd_pcm_oss
i2c_piix4              13133  0 
snd_timer              24517  2 snd_seq,snd_pcm
parport_pc             29157  0 
snd                    55877  11 snd_intel8x0,snd_ac97_codec,snd_seq_oss,snd_seq,snd_seq_device,snd_pcm_oss,snd_mixer_oss,snd_pcm,snd_timer
i2c_core               24897  2 i2c_ec,i2c_piix4
parport                37513  2 lp,parport_pc
soundcore              11553  1 snd
serio_raw              10693  0 
snd_page_alloc         14281  2 snd_intel8x0,snd_pcm
tpm_tis                16713  0 
tpm                    19041  1 tpm_tis
tpm_bios               11073  1 tpm
cdrom                  36577  1 ide_cd
dm_raid45              67273  0 
dm_message              6977  1 dm_raid45
dm_region_hash         15681  1 dm_raid45
dm_mem_cache            9537  1 dm_raid45
dm_snapshot            23653  0 
dm_zero                 6209  0 
dm_mirror              24393  0 
dm_log                 14785  3 dm_raid45,dm_region_hash,dm_mirror
dm_mod                 63737  11 dm_multipath,dm_raid45,dm_snapshot,dm_zero,dm_mirror,dm_log
ata_piix               24005  0 
ahci                   38477  2 
libata                156805  4 pata_acpi,ata_generic,ata_piix,ahci
sd_mod                 25281  3 
scsi_mod              144021  11 be2iscsi,ib_iser,iscsi_tcp,bnx2i,libcxgbi,libiscsi2,scsi_transport_iscsi2,scsi_dh,sg,libata,sd_mod
ext3                  125769  2 
jbd                    57705  1 ext3
uhci_hcd               25421  0 
ohci_hcd               24937  0 
ehci_hcd               34125  0

Aby zainstalować nowy moduł należy użyć polecenia insmod , czasami próba załadowania w ten sposób nowego modułu może się nie powieść ze względu na to że moduł ten może mieć jakieś inne zależności w tym celu lepiej skorzystać z innej komendy która również dodaje zależności ładując dany moduł modprobe

Czas powiedzieć coś o oznaczeniach urządzeń przechowujących nasze dane.

PATA - Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment
- IDE/ATA - sterowniki
  - /dev/hda : główny, master
  - /dev/hdb : główny, slave
  - /dev/hdc : podrzędny, master
  - /dev/hdd : podrzędny, slave
  - numery przy któryś z tych oznaczeń oznaczają partycje np. /dev/hda1
SATA lub SCSI - Serial Advanced Technology Attachment lub Small Computer System Interface
- /dev/sda : główny, master
- /dev/sdb : główny, slave
- /dev/sdc : podrzędny, master
- /dev/sdd : podrzędny, slave
- numery przy któryś z tych oznaczeń oznaczają partycje np. /dev/sda1

Runlevels

W Linux'ie standardowe poziomy działania są numerowane 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Każdy z tych stanów jest następną wariacją stanu 1. Dokumentacje tych stanów można znaleźć tu: /etc/inittab

Ubuntu nie posiada tego pliku, default'owy poziom można zmienić /etc/init/rc-sysinit.conf

CentOS:

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ cat /etc/inittab 
#
# inittab       This file describes how the INIT process should set up
#               the system in a certain run-level.
#
# Author:       Miquel van Smoorenburg, 
#               Modified for RHS Linux by Marc Ewing and Donnie Barnes
#

# Default runlevel. The runlevels used by RHS are:
#   0 - halt (Do NOT set initdefault to this)
#   1 - Single user mode
#   2 - Multiuser, without NFS (The same as 3, if you do not have networking)
#   3 - Full multiuser mode
#   4 - unused
#   5 - X11
#   6 - reboot (Do NOT set initdefault to this)
# 
id:5:initdefault:

# System initialization.
si::sysinit:/etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit

l0:0:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc 0
l1:1:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc 1
l2:2:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc 2
l3:3:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc 3
l4:4:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc 4
l5:5:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc 5
l6:6:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc 6

# Trap CTRL-ALT-DELETE
ca::ctrlaltdel:/sbin/shutdown -t3 -r now

# When our UPS tells us power has failed, assume we have a few minutes
# of power left.  Schedule a shutdown for 2 minutes from now.
# This does, of course, assume you have powerd installed and your
# UPS connected and working correctly.  
pf::powerfail:/sbin/shutdown -f -h +2 "Power Failure; System Shutting Down"

# If power was restored before the shutdown kicked in, cancel it.
pr:12345:powerokwait:/sbin/shutdown -c "Power Restored; Shutdown Cancelled"


# Run gettys in standard runlevels
1:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty1
2:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty2
3:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty3
4:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty4
5:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty5
6:2345:respawn:/sbin/mingetty tty6

# Run xdm in runlevel 5
x:5:respawn:/etc/X11/prefdm -nodaemon

Aby sprawdzić jaki runlevel aktualnie posiadamy podajemy komendę runlevel

Ubuntu:

nonus25@localhost:~$ runlevel 
N 2

CentOS:

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ /sbin/runlevel 
N 5

Do zmiany runlevel używamy polecenia init 0 - (halt system) lub telinit 6(reboots system). Jeżeli wywołujemy skrypt init 0, to skrypt ten wykonuje wszystkie usługi znajdujące się w /etc/rc0.d/, zobaczmy co znajduje się w tych katalogach:

Ubuntu:

nonus25@localhost:~$ ls -lo /etc/rc0.d/
total 4
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  25 2012-01-31 20:18 K65vboxadd-service -> ../init.d/vboxadd-service
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  17 2012-01-31 20:16 K70vboxadd -> ../init.d/vboxadd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  21 2012-01-31 20:18 K70vboxadd-x11 -> ../init.d/vboxadd-x11
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  19 2012-01-31 19:30 K74bluetooth -> ../init.d/bluetooth
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 353 2012-01-20 09:09 README
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  29 2012-01-31 19:30 S10unattended-upgrades -> ../init.d/unattended-upgrades
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  22 2012-01-31 19:30 S15wpa-ifupdown -> ../init.d/wpa-ifupdown
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  18 2012-01-31 19:30 S20sendsigs -> ../init.d/sendsigs
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  17 2012-01-31 19:30 S30urandom -> ../init.d/urandom
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  22 2012-01-31 19:30 S31umountnfs.sh -> ../init.d/umountnfs.sh
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  20 2012-01-31 19:30 S35networking -> ../init.d/networking
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  18 2012-01-31 19:30 S40umountfs -> ../init.d/umountfs
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  20 2012-01-31 19:30 S60umountroot -> ../init.d/umountroot
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root  14 2012-01-31 19:30 S90halt -> ../init.d/halt

CentOS:

[nonus25@localhost ~]$ ls -lo /etc/rc0.d/
total 460
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 20 Jan 25 20:14 K00xendomains -> ../init.d/xendomains
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:32 K01dnsmasq -> ../init.d/dnsmasq
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 24 Jan 25 19:38 K01libvirt-guests -> ../init.d/libvirt-guests
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:35 K01luci -> ../init.d/luci
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 21 Jan 25 19:38 K01modclusterd -> ../init.d/modclusterd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:38 K01rgmanager -> ../init.d/rgmanager
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:38 K01ricci -> ../init.d/ricci
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 24 Jan 25 19:36 K01setroubleshoot -> ../init.d/setroubleshoot
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:33 K01smartd -> ../init.d/smartd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 21 Jan 25 19:33 K01tog-pegasus -> ../init.d/tog-pegasus
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:38 K01xend -> ../init.d/xend
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 22 Jan 25 19:32 K02avahi-daemon -> ../init.d/avahi-daemon
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 24 Jan 25 19:32 K02avahi-dnsconfd -> ../init.d/avahi-dnsconfd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 24 Jan 25 19:38 K02NetworkManager -> ../init.d/NetworkManager
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:32 K02oddjobd -> ../init.d/oddjobd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 18 Jan 25 19:38 K03libvirtd -> ../init.d/libvirtd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 22 Jan 25 19:37 K03yum-updatesd -> ../init.d/yum-updatesd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:30 K05anacron -> ../init.d/anacron
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 13 Jan 25 19:33 K05atd -> ../init.d/atd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:30 K05conman -> ../init.d/conman
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:34 K05innd -> ../init.d/innd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:32 K05saslauthd -> ../init.d/saslauthd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:33 K05wdaemon -> ../init.d/wdaemon
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:32 K10cups -> ../init.d/cups
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:30 K10dc_server -> ../init.d/dc_server
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:36 K10hplip -> ../init.d/hplip
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 21 Jan 25 19:33 K10piranha-gui -> ../init.d/piranha-gui
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:30 K10psacct -> ../init.d/psacct
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:33 K10pulse -> ../init.d/pulse
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:31 K10tcsd -> ../init.d/tcsd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 13 Jan 25 19:36 K10xfs -> ../init.d/xfs
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:30 K12dc_client -> ../init.d/dc_client
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 13 Jan 25 19:29 K15gpm -> ../init.d/gpm
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:32 K15httpd -> ../init.d/httpd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 18 Jan 30 01:56 K15svnserve -> ../init.d/svnserve
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 13 Jan 25 19:36 K20nfs -> ../init.d/nfs
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:30 K20openais -> ../init.d/openais
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:29 K20rwhod -> ../init.d/rwhod
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:38 K24irda -> ../init.d/irda
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:34 K25squid -> ../init.d/squid
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:33 K25sshd -> ../init.d/sshd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 18 Jan 25 19:32 K30sendmail -> ../init.d/sendmail
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 22 Jan 25 19:33 K30spamassassin -> ../init.d/spamassassin
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 20:10 K35dovecot -> ../init.d/dovecot
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 13 Jan 25 19:32 K35smb -> ../init.d/smb
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:38 K35vncserver -> ../init.d/vncserver
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:32 K35winbind -> ../init.d/winbind
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 20 Jan 25 19:32 K44rawdevices -> ../init.d/rawdevices
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:29 K50ibmasm -> ../init.d/ibmasm
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 20 Jan 25 19:32 K50netconsole -> ../init.d/netconsole
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:32 K50snmpd -> ../init.d/snmpd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:32 K50snmptrapd -> ../init.d/snmptrapd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 13 Jan 25 19:30 K50tux -> ../init.d/tux
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:33 K50vsftpd -> ../init.d/vsftpd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:35 K50xinetd -> ../init.d/xinetd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:32 K60crond -> ../init.d/crond
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 25 Jan 30 00:23 K65vboxadd-service -> ../init.d/vboxadd-service
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 20 Jan 25 19:36 K69rpcsvcgssd -> ../init.d/rpcsvcgssd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 30 00:22 K70vboxadd -> ../init.d/vboxadd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 21 Jan 30 00:23 K70vboxadd-x11 -> ../init.d/vboxadd-x11
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:30 K72autofs -> ../init.d/autofs
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:32 K73ypbind -> ../init.d/ypbind
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:33 K74acpid -> ../init.d/acpid
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:38 K74apmd -> ../init.d/apmd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 13 Jan 25 19:29 K74gfs -> ../init.d/gfs
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:29 K74gfs2 -> ../init.d/gfs2
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:38 K74haldaemon -> ../init.d/haldaemon
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 20 Jan 25 19:29 K74lm_sensors -> ../init.d/lm_sensors
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 22 Jan 30 01:56 K74lvm2-monitor -> ../init.d/lvm2-monitor
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 20:10 K74nscd -> ../init.d/nscd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:30 K74ntpd -> ../init.d/ntpd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:32 K75netfs -> ../init.d/netfs
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 22 Jan 25 19:36 K75scsi_reserve -> ../init.d/scsi_reserve
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:38 K76clvmd -> ../init.d/clvmd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 20:12 K78qdiskd -> ../init.d/qdiskd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 20:12 K79cman -> ../init.d/cman
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:30 K80kdump -> ../init.d/kdump
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:33 K85mdmonitor -> ../init.d/mdmonitor
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:33 K85mdmpd -> ../init.d/mdmpd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 20 Jan 25 19:32 K85messagebus -> ../init.d/messagebus
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:36 K85rpcgssd -> ../init.d/rpcgssd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:36 K85rpcidmapd -> ../init.d/rpcidmapd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:36 K86nfslock -> ../init.d/nfslock
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 20 Jan 25 19:33 K87irqbalance -> ../init.d/irqbalance
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 18 Jan 25 19:32 K87mcstrans -> ../init.d/mcstrans
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 20 Jan 25 19:30 K87multipathd -> ../init.d/multipathd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:32 K87named -> ../init.d/named
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:32 K87portmap -> ../init.d/portmap
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 21 Jan 25 19:32 K87restorecond -> ../init.d/restorecond
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:30 K88auditd -> ../init.d/auditd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:32 K88pcscd -> ../init.d/pcscd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:32 K88syslog -> ../init.d/syslog
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 24 Jan 25 19:32 K88wpa_supplicant -> ../init.d/wpa_supplicant
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:33 K89dund -> ../init.d/dund
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:33 K89hidd -> ../init.d/hidd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:29 K89ipvsadm -> ../init.d/ipvsadm
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:32 K89iscsi -> ../init.d/iscsi
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 16 Jan 25 19:32 K89iscsid -> ../init.d/iscsid
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 18 Jan 25 19:30 K89netplugd -> ../init.d/netplugd
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:33 K89pand -> ../init.d/pand
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:29 K89rdisc -> ../init.d/rdisc
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:33 K90bluetooth -> ../init.d/bluetooth
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:32 K90network -> ../init.d/network
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:38 K91capi -> ../init.d/capi
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:38 K91isdn -> ../init.d/isdn
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:29 K92ip6tables -> ../init.d/ip6tables
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 18 Jan 25 19:29 K92iptables -> ../init.d/iptables
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 19 Jan 25 19:38 K95firstboot -> ../init.d/firstboot
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 15 Jan 25 19:38 K95kudzu -> ../init.d/kudzu
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 18 Jan 25 19:29 K99cpuspeed -> ../init.d/cpuspeed
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 23 Jan 25 19:33 K99microcode_ctl -> ../init.d/microcode_ctl
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 25 Jan 25 19:34 K99readahead_early -> ../init.d/readahead_early
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 25 Jan 25 19:34 K99readahead_later -> ../init.d/readahead_later
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 17 Jan 25 19:32 S00killall -> ../init.d/killall
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root 14 Jan 25 19:32 S01halt -> ../init.d/halt

Skrypty oznaczone literą K oznacza usługi które będą zabite kill, a skrypty oznaczone literą S odzwierciedlają dany stan, tak jak widzimy powyżej mamy dwa skrypty oznaczone literą S killall i halt. Tak więc widzimy że w tym stanie wszystkie procesy zostaną zabite i system zostanie zatrzymany. Runlevel 1 oznacza single user mode, powoduje również automatyczne zalogowanie do systemu jako root bez pytania o hasło. I oczywiscie uruchamia skrypt znajdujący się /etc/rc1.d/. Poziom 2 oznacza multiuser bez network'u, w Debain'ach jest używany jako domyślny zaś w RedHat'cie lub CentOS domyślnym poziomem jest poziom 5. Poziom 3, 4, 5 jest zazwyczaj nie używany w Debain'ach. Runlevel 3 w RedHat/CentOS daje nam stan multiuser z network'iem bez GUI. Poziom 4 również nie jest zasadniczo używany w RedHat'cie/CentOS'ie. Poziom 5 dla RedHat'a/CentOS'a jest poziomem domyślnym startuje jako multiuser z network'iem i z GUI. Poziom 6 jest trybem restartu. Równoważną komendą dla init 6 jest komenda shutdown -r now lub reboot, a dla komendy init 0 komenda shutdown -h now lub halt